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Fritz Haber
1868–1934 · Physical Chemist
A German physical chemist whose ammonia-synthesis work transformed fertiliser production, who later led Germany's chemical-weapons programme in World War I.
“It is a contradiction in terms and ideas to speak of a technological war as being fought for the benefit of mankind.”
Why is this scientist famous?
Developed a laboratory method for synthesising ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen, later industrialised by Carl Bosch and BASF as the Haber-Bosch process.
The Haber-Bosch process made large-scale synthetic nitrogen fertiliser possible and today supports food production for roughly half the world's population. Haber also directed major parts of Germany's poison-gas programme during the First World War, making his legacy both scientifically important and ethically controversial.
Fritz's story
A Chemist's Ambition
Fritz Haber was born on 9 December 1868 in Breslau, Prussia (now Wrocław, Poland), into a prosperous Jewish family. His father ran a successful dye and pigment business, and Fritz grew up around chemicals. He studied at the University of Heidelberg under the renowned chemist Robert Bunsen, and later at Berlin and Charlottenburg. He married Clara Immerwahr in 1901. Clara had earned a doctorate in chemistry from the University of Breslau in 1900, becoming the university's first woman to do so. Their marriage was unhappy, and her scientific career was severely limited by the opportunities available to women at the time.
The Nitrogen Crisis
By the early twentieth century, demand for fixed nitrogen for fertilisers and industry was rising. Atmospheric nitrogen is abundant but chemically difficult to use. At Karlsruhe, Haber worked with engineer Robert Le Rossignol to develop apparatus that combined nitrogen and hydrogen at high temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst. By 1909 they had demonstrated a continuous laboratory process for producing ammonia.
Feeding the World
Haber's laboratory method was only the starting point. Carl Bosch, Alwin Mittasch and teams at BASF solved the engineering and catalyst problems needed for large-scale production. The first industrial ammonia plant at Oppau began operating in 1913. The Haber-Bosch process transformed fertiliser production and is estimated to support food production for about half of the world's population. Haber was awarded the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for synthesising ammonia from its elements and received the prize in 1919.
The Dark Turn
When the First World War began, Haber devoted himself to Germany's war effort and became a leading organiser of chemical-weapons research. On 22 April 1915 he supervised the first large-scale battlefield release of chlorine gas near Ypres, Belgium. The attack caused mass casualties and opened a new phase of chemical warfare. Haber believed chemical weapons might shorten the war, but his role remains one of the most controversial parts of his life. Clara Immerwahr died by suicide shortly afterwards. Historians have found that the evidence does not establish a single motive for her death, so it should not be presented simply as a protest against Haber's gas warfare.
Later Life
After the war, Haber led an unsuccessful project to extract gold from seawater. In 1933 Nazi anti-Jewish laws made his position in Germany untenable. Rather than dismiss the Jewish scientists at his institute, he resigned and left Germany. He spent time in Cambridge before travelling to Switzerland and died in Basel on 29 January 1934 while considering a possible position in Palestine. Zyklon B was a hydrogen-cyanide pesticide sold by Degesch. Haber did not develop Zyklon B. Years after his death, the Nazis used it in extermination camps to murder more than a million people, most of them Jews.
What did they discover?
Haber-Bosch Process
Developed the laboratory method for synthesising ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen. Carl Bosch, Alwin Mittasch and BASF teams then transformed it into the industrial Haber-Bosch process.
Chemical-Weapons Programme
Directed major parts of Germany's chemical-weapons research during the First World War and supervised the first large-scale battlefield chlorine-gas attack near Ypres in 1915.
Agricultural Revolution
Industrial ammonia made synthetic nitrogen fertilisers available on a vast scale. Such fertilisers are estimated to support food production for about half of the world's population.
Gold from Seawater
He led a massive research project to extract dissolved gold from seawater to pay Germany's World War I reparations — the effort failed because seawater contains far less gold than he had estimated.
Amazing facts
Synthetic nitrogen fertilisers produced using Haber-Bosch chemistry are estimated to support food production for about half of the world's population.
His wife Clara Immerwahr was a brilliant chemist in her own right — the first woman to earn a PhD from the University of Breslau.
He was awarded the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for ammonia synthesis and received the prize in 1919.
He tried to extract gold from seawater to pay Germany's war debts — the project failed because seawater contains far less gold than he hoped.
Haber did not develop Zyklon B. It was developed as a pesticide by others and was later used by the Nazis for mass murder.
After Nazi anti-Jewish laws ordered the dismissal of Jewish staff, Haber resigned as director of his institute in 1933 rather than carry out the dismissals, and later left Germany.
Albert Einstein and Haber were close friends, even though they held very different political views.
Modern ammonia production using Haber-Bosch chemistry consumes roughly 1–2% of global energy production.
Timeline
Born in Breslau, Prussia (now Wrocław, Poland), into a Jewish family
Began studying chemistry at the University of Heidelberg under Robert Bunsen
Converted from Judaism to Protestant Christianity
Married Clara Immerwahr, the first woman to earn a PhD from the University of Breslau
With Robert Le Rossignol, demonstrated continuous laboratory synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen
The Haber-Bosch process began industrial ammonia production at BASF's Oppau plant
Supervised the first large-scale battlefield chlorine-gas attack near Ypres, Belgium
Clara Immerwahr died by suicide; historians have found that the evidence does not establish a single motive
Awarded the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for ammonia synthesis; received the prize in 1919
Led a failed project to extract gold from seawater to pay Germany's war reparations
Resigned from the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute and left Germany after Nazi anti-Jewish laws made his position untenable
Died of heart failure in Basel, Switzerland, at the age of 65
Awards & honours
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